Arguments about the critical period hypothesis Annotated Bibliography

Arguments about the critical period hypothesis - Annotated Bibliography Example The researchers were able to identify that this generalization is not completely true and that there are other factors involved. This research will be used to provide support for the opponent side of the argument that puberty and the age before puberty is the critical period to gain native like proficiency in learning a second language. In this research article the author provides a commentary and definition of an individual’s ability to speak a language in the same way a native user of that language speaks that language. In this article the author even states that the critical period hypothesis restricts the way researchers look at non-natives ability to learn a second language. This article will be used to define the concepts of nativelikeness as well as non-nativelikeness in relation to the usage of these concepts in the critical period argument. This research was conducted on Spanish subjects in order to identify the constraints they experience while gaining nativelike pro ficiency in learning a second language. The researchers were able to identify that there is a negative correlation between an individual’s ability to learn a second language with nativelike proficiency and age even once the critical period has elapsed. This study will be used to argue against the critical period hypothesis and it will be used to support the point that non-natives fail to develop nativelike proficiency in using a language before as well as after the critical period.

Economics in one lesson Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Economics in one lesson - Essay Example He argues that, the art of economics involves analyzing primary and secondary effects these policies to all groups. The book discusses in details several fallacies such as high taxes, evils that take place in the public projects, minimum wage rate, effects of bailout, price control, tariffs on imports, rent control, trade union activities, regulations and economic effects of government actions. Parity pricing, disbanding a large number of troops, commodity stabilization and inflation are fallacies that are not given much weight but are included in this book. Hazlitt does not object public program spending but rejects the use of public projects as a plan of injecting money into the economy. He argues that public projects should be justified based on their importance to the economy. Money outsourced from the private sector by the government in the form of taxes is used to fund public projects. Using the bridge example, Hazlitt argues that creating a job in the public sector kills another job in the private sector. In such projects there are things which are not permitted to come into existence. In paragraph 3 of this book, Hazlitt argues that, the secondary effect on public projects is in the form of how money used to fund these projects is diverted to other areas. Unfortunately, such news most likely will not be reported on considering the kind of news that are being aired nowadays. Government never does as well in making loans as the private sector does. This is because people tend to be more careful with their own money (Hazlitt. Para8). Unfortunately, most of the time this fact is always hidden because bad loans made by the government are hidden in most federal spending. On the other hand, when banks collapse due to bad loans, it is announced all over the news. Political considerations further hide the bad loans as a result of government lending. This

Graduation project Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Graduation project - Research Paper Example The kingdom of Saudi Arabia is located in the Middle East and is one of the fastest growing economies in the world. Characterized by numerous business opportunities, the country is among the top rated investment destinations of the world. To most people, the name Saudi Arabia is associated with religious oppression and fewer people always think of investment to this unique location. Located in the middle of the Asian desert, Saudi Arabia is a dry country with a rich number of oil wells that is one of the key economic boosters that the country has. Most of the oil is sold to the western countries that either promise cash in return or improve the living conditions of the Saudi people. Starting or doing a business in Saudi can be quite challenging especially for foreign investors. The country has strict Islamic laws that govern almost all the industries and sectors of the economy. In order to facilitate the writing of this paper, literature on how trade is affected in Saudi Arabia was c ollected with relevance to the topic of discussion kept in mind. The banks and the entire economy strictly follow the Shariah laws of banking that maintain that loans do not gather any interest at all. It is for this reason that most investors find it challenging especially if their field of business will be affected by the strict laws. Coming into power in 2005, his majesty king Abdullah has had a lot of impact on the economy and living standards of the Saudi people. The country currently enjoys peace and is one of the countries in the Middle East that experience peace and political stability. This paper is a critical review of the current laws and economic standards that affect businesses in Saudi and some of the challenges that one might face in order to establish a business in Saudi. It is however important to note that this guide is a general overview of the situation in Saudi and should not

Book Review on On the Beach by Nevil Shute Essay

Book Review on On the Beach by Nevil Shute - Essay Example Meanwhile, global winds slowly carry the deadly radioactive waste towards the Continent which is why he is to find many dead along the way. Human and animal life are dying as a result of sickness produced by radiation, a kind of cholera which begins with nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, increasingly violent spasms, and, finally, death from exhaustion. As everyone is dying either through radioactive poisoning or cyanide pills, Australia, like the other southern nations, distributes cyanide pills to those who want them to die an easier death. This is the story of the last people on earth as written by Nevil Shute. Nevil Shute's beach stands for the ocean of time, where the last waves are swishing and breaking in the sand on those shores. The beach is that of Melbourne, Australia, the southernmost city of the world, where the people live out their last days of their existence. "On the Beach" is a dreamlike journey into the darkness of the Nuclear Age which is our time. The basic premise of the novel is that nuclear war, if it comes, will have only one outcome. While not every corner of the earth will be charred and destroyed badly, everyone will suffer. This is a reminder of that fact. Who is to blame The complete depopulation of the northern hemisphere is based on mistakes and misunderstandings, according to the novel.

Give Me a Free

Give Me a Free Essay Essay When composing the Constitution in 1789, the Founding Fathers were anxious to stress that the executive branch of the new republic was to be subordinate to the peoples’ representation, the Congress. They achieved this through the Separation of Powers, a theory of government thought up by the French philosopher Montesquieu to prevent over-mighty or tyrannical government. The elaborate system of ‘checks and balances’ introduced greatly reduced the traditional authority of the executive, leaving some to argue that U.  S. presidents have been left with very little power, if only the power of persuasion. However to what extent is this true? Theodore Roosevelt famously stated that he was both â€Å"king and prime minister†, even though other presidents, such as Johnson and Truman have stressed the weakness of the presidency. The argument that presidents have only the power to persuade can be seen in many of the formal powers of the president laid out in Article II of the Constitution. This can perhaps best be seen in his powers of nomination, both for federal judges and executive branch officials. The president has only the power to suggest appointments to these positions; the final confirmation of the president’s choice lies with Congress. This will sometimes mean lengthy negotiations between the branches of government, with the president using his ‘pork barrel’ in an attempt to win over Senators. In 1987, Reagan’s nomination of Robert Bork was rejected by a Senate vote of 42 to 58, resulting in embarrassment for both the president and his nominee. Reagan was unable to do anything about this, other than to suggest a new nominee in the hope that they would be accepted instead. The president’s power of persuasion is also illustrated by his role as chief diplomat for the United States. In this position, he negotiates major treaties with foreign countries, such Carter’s Panama Canal Treaty or Bush Snr. ’s Chemical Weapons Ban. Even so, it is the job of the Congress to ratify the treaty; it has no legal authority until it has been accepted by the Senate with a two-thirds majority. As such, the president can only persuade the Senate to accept it, arguing for its merits or using his limited access to patronage. For instance, the Treaty of Versailles drawn up President Wilson in the aftermath of the First World War was rejected by the Senate, resulting in America being unable to join the League of Nations, a ‘pet-project’ of the President. Later in the C20th, the Senate refused to ratify a further six treaties, which presidents such as Eisenhower (1960) and Clinton (1999) had worked hard on the international stage to achieve. Similarly, the president’s powers to submit the annual budget and propose legislation both require Congressional action if they are to have any authority. The president’s State of the Union address comprises key pieces of legislation which the president would like to be introduced (such as more green jobs and banking regulations seen in Obama’s 2010 address). However, this is meaningless unless they are introduced to and accepted by Congress, a process that requires the president to act tactfully using bipartisanship to persuade Congressmen and Senators to follow his proposals.

Enron Corporation Essay Example for Free

Enron Corporation Essay I  Ã‚   The Beginning When Enron Corporation declared a Chapter 11 bankruptcy in December 2001, it left the public especially its investors and stockholders reeling from such financial scandal and collapse.   Enron had allegedly overstated its profits by $586 million since 1997 in order to protect the firm’s balance sheet and practiced insider trading as well fraud and conspiracy. Enron had been the seventh largest company in the United States and had been one of the largest financial contributors to the Presidential elections, especially the Bush family. To the outside world, Enron portrayed a picture of success.   However, upon closure inspection on the inside, Enron was on the brink of collapse. When Enron’s stock price hit its highest at $90, the executives who allegedly knew of the offshore accounts of Enron started selling their respective shares and to encouraged the public to continue buying the said stocks.   However, the executives knew that the stock prices would not increase anymore but still reassured the public and its investors that the prices of stock would reach a high $130-140 per share. By August 2001, Enron’s stock prices had dropped from $90 to a measly $42. It became evident that the company had fraudulently induced and fooled the public, investors and stockholders to buying the company’s stocks and shares. Amidst all these, Enron founder and former chairman Kenneth Lay continued to reassure the public to remain calm, and asked the investors to buy the company’s shares as the company will regain its profits in the succeeding months. Nonetheless, in October of 2001, the stocks plunged to $15 but the investors saw this as an opportunity to buy Enron stocks at such low prices. But the truth about the company’s financial standing became public and the stock price finally hit rock bottom at $1 per share. II   Basis of the Charges Stockholders and investors gathered and instituted a class-action suit against Enron and its officers in order to recover the millions of investment they made on Enron as result of the false representation and fraud by the company. Enron top executives specifically its Chief Executive Officers, Kenneth Lay and Jeffrey Skilling were charged and convicted with the collapse of the energy giant. Kenneth Lay faced seven counts of fraud and conspiracy while Skilling faced 31 counts of fraud, conspiracy, insider trading and lying to auditors about Enron’s financial position. In 1987, Enron auditors found out a billion-dollar oil trading scandal in its New York offices.   Traders had been engaged in this kind of practice – falsifying transactions in order to boost their volume and profit thereby fattening their bonuses as well. Although CEO Kenneth Lay knew of this, he did not fire the traders nor contacted the authorities in order to cover up their problems. But this incident did not deter the traders and six months later, competitors began to grow suspicious because if word got out, Enron’s trading partners could have demanded that the company cover its positions with cash, which the company did not have (Fowler).   Thus, the traders were fired and charged but not until they were able to transfer million of dollars into their personal accounts.   Enron for its part was able to get away by bluffing the market and reported $85 million in loss but sources claim that the loss totalled to at least $135 million. CEO Jeffrey Skilling, who joined Enron in 1990, did not care much about the expenses incurred by the company as long as the margins looked good.   He was also more concerned with the revenues increases and widening profit margins instead of the cash flows which was practiced by his predecessor. So enamoured were the top executives in increasing business profit that when a deal failed or fell apart, more effort was placed into hiding the consequences instead of rectifying and owning up to the problem.   After taking over as chief operating officer, he renewed the almost non-existent post of chief financial officer and delegated many of the management responsibilities. In theory, Enron had mechanisms that would assess risk and accurately report financial numbers. These mechanisms required that deals should be strictly analyzed which included review by the legal department of the originating unit, the corporate legal department, chief risk officer and chief accounting officer.   However, due to the insidious practice of the company, auditors and accountants were bullied to over ride the system and departments were able to determine the total value of their proposals by manipulating the long-term price of whatever product was sold or bought.   The company also used a â€Å"mark-to-market† accounting system pushed by Skilling which allows a company to report as current revenue the total value of a deal over its projected lifetime (Fowler). This system made earning appear good which in turn pumped up the stock prices and increased the value of stocks which executives received as bonuses. III Trial As the stunned investors witnessed Enron’s stock prices plunged, the government began a massive crackdown on the executives who were responsible for the collapse of the company, and would end up in the conclusion of convincing and proving to the jury that Lay and Skilling, the two top executives of the company, where guilty of massive fraud and were thus guilty. Government prosecutors were at first overwhelmed with the girth of the corporate fraud.   Nevertheless, they began to take measures to respond to these kinds of crimes and a barrage of criminal and civil investigations and prosecutions began to surface.   Thus, in 2002, the Presidential Corporate Fraud Task Force filed criminal charges against more than 900 defendants, of which 60 are chief executive or president level and successfully prosecuted or convicted 500 of them. The case against Lay and Skilling were heard by US District Judge Sim Lake and lasted nearly four months while the jury deliberated for six days.   The defense counsel initially attempted to persuade the judge to move the trial away from Houston, Enron’s hometown as they were afraid that the jury might be influenced by anger due to the resulting loss of jobs and money and would see them as a way of revenge. Kenneth Lay faced seven counts of fraud and conspiracy fraud and conspiracy while Skilling on the other hand, faced 31 counts of fraud, conspiracy, insider trading and lying to auditors about Enron’s financial position.   Although both asserted their innocence of the charges against them, they were convicted for a total of 29 criminal counts as well as conspiracy to hide the failing health of the company by selling boosterich optimism to Wall Street and the public (MSNBC). Lay, who was convicted to 6 counts of conspiracy, securities and wire fraud in the corporate trial and 4 counts on separate personal banking trial, surrendered his passport and posted a $5 million bond secured by the family.   His sentence also carried a maximum penalty of 45 years in prison for the corporate trial while 120 years in personal trial respectively.   Ã‚  Skilling on the other hand, was convicted by 19 counts out of the 28 charged as well as one count of insider trading while being acquitted with the remaining charges. The charges against   these Enron top executives prospered as other executives turned the table and plead guilty in their respective charges in order to receive lower sentences than that prescribed.   Among the former employees who testified against Lay and Skilling was Ben Glisan who is now serving a 5-year prison sentence after pleading guilty to a charge of conspiracy.   According to Glisan, both Lay and Skilling knew that the company was in deep financial trouble but tried to hide it instead. Ultimately, the jury rejected Skilling’s defense that no fraud happened at Enron save for those committed by a number of executives skimming millions in secret side deals, while bad publicity and poor market confidence resulted in the collapse of the energy giant. III. Effects of the Enron Collapse As the jurors found that these once-wealthy and powerful executives repeatedly lied to cover up the real position of the company by covering up accounting and auditing failures which eventually led to its collapse in 2001, the left a devastating effect in the business world as well as the lives of the investors and shareholders.   The demise of Enron wiped out more than $60 billion in market value, almost $2.1 billion in retirement savings and costs more than 5,600 to lose their jobs. The anger of the public over the recent corporate scandals led to the passing of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, which was designed to make company executives more accountable. Although public distrust for white-collar trial could not actually reverse the damage done to investor confidence, the Lay and Skilling trial however has become a start of a healing process for public-investor relations to be righted again. IV Timothy Belden Apart from the other key witnesses who were former Enron employees and who testified against the top two Enron officials, Timothy Belden particularly made the charges against Lay and Skilling stick, ending in their conviction.   Belden who was the first person to be charged in the manipulation of Western Energy markets, initially engaged in lengthy dance with federal officials over his plea and eventual cooperation in testifying against Lay and Skilling.   He pleaded guilty in 2002 to conspiracy and admitted that he gave false information to California’s electrical grid operators.   Belden is also said to be the â€Å"mastermind behind the strategies described† in memos that spelled out how Enron manipulated the California market (Schreiber). Beginning in the mid-nineties, California was among the first states to deregulate electricity.   The deregulation occurred just as when companies were leaving the state in numbers thereby creating a recession. The deregulation was supposed to reduce the ten percent of the tax payers’ bill while breaking the old methods of greedy companies.   As California deregulated the wholesale side of its energy markets, it also kept price caps in the retail side. It coincided with the State’s decision to bar utilities from signing long-term cheap fixed prices which forced them to into an unpredictable market.   Thus, the utilities were made to pay exorbitant prices but were not able to pass on to their consumers the prices they incurred.   Enron promised to deliver power more efficiently and build new plants that can run on cheaper fuels. Commencing in 1998 until 2001, Belden as well as other executives from Enron devised a fraudulent scheme in order to obtain increased revenue for Enron from wholesale electricity consumers and other market participants in the State of California. The schemes perpetrated by Belden and the other Enron executives required them to submit false information to the companies supplied by Enron and misrepresented the nature of electricity which the company was supposed to supply. Despite being paid to relieve congestion, the company however, did not do so and instead imported as well as exported electricity in order to receive higher prices from the companies they supply. Of particular interest in the course of the trial is a transcript of conversation between Belden and one of the operators of the power plant wherein the two discussed shutting down one of Reliant’s power plants in California to create a shortage in order for the prices to skyrocket. As the scheme worked, causing the power prices to arrive at high and unjust levels in California, it thereby became illegal under the Federal Energy Policy Act. In his testimony, he called California’s post-deregulation power market dysfunctional and said his company bought cheap electricity in the Northwest to sell in California at a profit (Baker). This practice created the appearance among consumers that there was shortage of electricity, thereby having the need to jack up the prices. Enron was able to pocket off almost $1 billion in a period of nine months in 2000 and 2001. Belden admitted however, that he only met with Lay and Skilling once during a colleague’s party.   But nevertheless, Belden’s testimony proved to be a very crucial one as it confirmed and proved that Lay and Skilling knew of what was happening in California but turned to hide it instead. As company vice-president and head of Enron’s West Coast trading operation, Belden supervised a staff of 120 that went from $50 million in earnings in 1999 to $800 million in 2001, while Californias power markets disintegrated into panic and sky-high prices. When one of Enron’s lawyers started investigating these â€Å"irregularities† as a response to the investigation conducted by the California Public Utility Commission. The lawyers found out of Enron’s tactic of using advantage of the energy crisis and revealed through a memo that Enron created false congestion lines, transferred energy in and out of state to avoid price caps and charged for services the company never actually provided (Swartz).   And yet, inspite of the information the lawyer gave to the top executives, and traders have been told to return the money made on improper trading, the executives at Enron still decided against it despite knowing that the practice was illegal.   For Belden and the other traders, sending the money back would mean that the other companies will know what Enron was doing.   Nevertheless, Belden and Enron continued on with the practice.   Skilling, on the other hand, fully knew well of the said practice by the company in 2001 as he was already tipped by one of the executives who learned of the previous investigation. During examination, Belden admitted to US District Judge Martin Jenkins that he did it because he was trying to maximize profit for Enron. Belden claimed that he was only following Enron’s instructions as he handled his trades (CBS News).   According to Belden’s counsel, Enron knew fully well of Belden’s action but was never disciplined nor sanctioned at all. In fact, Belden may have reaped bonus for such practice as revenues from his trading unit climbed from $50 million in 1999 to $500 million in 2000 to $800 million in 2001.     When he was charged with conspiracy, Belden after a long time of dealing and negotiating with the federal government, decided to turn against Kenneth Lay and Jeffrey Skilling, claiming that the two top executives knew of the practice he and other traders did as indicated by the internal company memos which described how Enron took power out of California at a time of rolling blackouts and shortages and how it sold out of state to elude price caps (CBS News).

Comparison of Leadership Theories

Comparison of Leadership Theories The establishment of relationship between followers and leaders that focus on real changes and outcomes that reflects through shared purposes is basically leadership. Leadership also involves in creating change not only in maintaining status quote. Another leadership important feature is to bring people and make them understanding to come together around a common vision and to bring change about desired future. In many aspects, the importance of leadership is vital without it families, communities and as well as organisations would go down apart. In other sense, the way of improving efficiency, morale, customer service and performance is the critical aspect of leadership. It is also essential for the organisations to handle critical situation and lead that effectively and only a good leader with good leadership ability can lead team successfully. There are different styles of leadership basically it is way the person deals with that in order to stay alive in his or her position. Thes e are authoritarian, democratic and laissez-faire.( Business:William M. Pride, Robert J. Hughes, Jack R. Kapoor,Cengage Learning, 2009 Political Science -p.179) In authoritarian leadership style, leader holds all the power and responsibilities. In this style, employees are assigned to specific task by the leader and expect to get it done orderly. In laissez-faire leadership style, leader gives power to employees. There are two or more alternative decisions taken by leader, employees can choose any of them from there it depends up to them. In democratic leadership styles, leader gives more importance on employees and tries to encourage them and shows attention to individuals. Historical, classical and contemporary approach to Leadership theory: Historically there are many leadership approaches that linked with different theories of leadership. Great Man theory of leadership: 1900s: This is the earliest theories of leadership. At that time most of the researchers believed that leaders are born, not made. In Great Man theory, describes that the main secrets of a great leader lies in being born great. It gives importance on the study of all the great leaders who were great, may be they are from aristocracy or from the lower classes but they had the opportunities to lead. By finding out those people who did great things such as Nepolean, Hitler, Curchill if we go further back then Lord Krisna, Gesus and Hazrat Mohammad were very easy to point out them. According to Great Man theory, it believes that leaders must have some qualities like good commanding power, cleverness, good character, courage, self-possession; fierceness and expressiveness that cant be possessed through learning or through particular taught programmes.(Organisational behaviour-by Hawa Singh,1st ed,2009-10,page-263)( Fire Service Leadership: Theories and Practices-Mitchell R. Waite, Interna tional Association of Fire Chiefs;Jones Bartlett Learning, 2008 Business Economics;page-3,4) Trait Theories of Leadership: 1900s-1940: Trait theories are similar to Great Man theories in some ways. It assumes that leaders must possess general traits or personal features that they get by born and common to all and create them better matched to leadership. In Trait Theory of leadership just tried to find traits of well-known leader that were frequent. This approach was based on the scheme that is individuality and personal intrinsic worth that distinguish successful leader form everyone else. In 1994, Yukl conducted research on traits and skills and linked to organisational effectiveness (Introduction to educational leadership organizational behavior: theory into practice,Patti L. Chance, Edward W. Chance,Eye on Education, 2002,page.87). These were- Energy and pressure patience Self-possession Inner locus of control Emotional maturity Worthiness Supremacy inspiration Reaching orientation Need for affiliation Situational Theories of Leadership: (Leadership in Organizations: There Is a Difference between Leaders and Managers, David, University Press of America, 2009, p 33) In situational theories of leadership gives more importance on the different situations like where the task to be accomplished, fit surrounded by personalities, power and perceptions. Effectiveness of leadership relies on those situations. These situational theories are also called Contingency theories because this Theory is reliant upon the requirements or the status of the situations. 1960s-70: In Contingency/situational theory argues-what leaders perform that can be determined by that situations and that behaviors must be related with that environmental situations in hand (Understanding Leadership Perspectives: Theoretical and Practical Approaches,  By Matthew R. Fairholm, Gilbert W. Fairholm,2008,page.11). A good situational leader can only apply different leadership styles with the changing situations. The best action taken by the leader depends on of the leader depends on a range of situational factors. How the model works simply to achieve results: Identification of detailed job and task Asses present performance Corresponding leader response Different leadership styles could influence by the wide range of variables depending on the different environmental situations and it creates an impact on leader behaviour, in which leader can function. There are some critical contingencies like organisational volume, complexity in task, maturity of worker and so many others. According to situational theory, situational factors are limited and vary according to that contingency and specified behaviour of leader can only work in certain kind of situations not for all. There are three most prominent theories of contingency- Path-Goal theory Feidlers Contingency theory The Vroom-Yettons model Path-Goal theory: In this theory mainly focus on leaders motivational function and it can be enhanced by increasing individual payoffs to subordinates for work goal achievement, gain personal satisfaction by escalating opportunities (House, 1971).According to these theories key occupier is that the effectiveness can be measured through the behaviours of different leaders that will be influenced by situational variables. In broader sense it focused on initial arrangement and reflection behaviour of leaders but later it extended in the form of participative and leadership behaviours in terms of achievement oriented (House and Mitchell, 1974).there are two major assumption on path-Goal theories of leadership- (Leadership  edited by Linda L. Neider, Chester Schriesheim, IAP, 2002, page-116) Firstly, it concerns with the suitability of leaders behaviour to the subordinates Secondly, it concerns with the motivational factors of leader (House and Mitchell, 1974). Suitability: Leader behaviours need to be suitable for the subordinates so that it helps them to function well with different situation. This good behaviour of leader enhances the overall satisfactions of subordinates. Motivation: The role of a leader is important in motivating of employees for particular task to increase the overall performance. Fiedlers Contingency theory: Managing organizational behaviour: Henry, Neal P. Mero, John R. Rizzo  Wiley-Blackwell, 2000 pages.461, 467 In 1971, Feidler proposed clarification on that how group performance can be affected through the relations of leadership orientation, group setting and job characteristics. Leaders situation can measure though various extents like relationships between leaders and members, structure of job and position power (Fiedler, 1978). The relationship between leader and member: This refers to how the leader is liked by the group members. When good relationship exists between leaders and members then all are get high satisfaction in work and organisations values is achieved through individual values. If the relation is going badly then there is lack of common trust. Another important term group cohesiveness, it is very difficult to make all the employees work together when it low. If it is high but bad relation with leader then group works together to harm the organisation as well as leader. Structure of jobs: It is categorised in two ways like high task and low task structure. In high task job structure leader should know what the goal is and how to achieve that. In low task structure job leader must make a decision how to perform task every time to get it done. Position power: In high position power leader has authority to take any important decisions without informing anyone to higher organisation levels. In low position power, leader has limited authority. The Vroom-Yettons model of leadership: This model is widely used in the development of leadership in corporate centre and also gets enough support from practitioners. (Industrial and organizational psychology: linking theory with practice;  By Cary L. Cooper, Edwin A. Locke, page-151,152)The most important aspects of this model is that legitimates both the autocratic and democratic leader behaviour and matching that is suitable in meticulous situations. This model also provides fruitful information about what would be the perfect time of using groups or opposed to personality decision making. This model has some limitations like leaders are always have to take decision in choosing of leadership styles, it considers each decision in term of situation but it does not depend on previous factor. Cognitive resource theory: Cognitive Resource theory is the modification of Feidlers Contingency theory. This theory focused on personality, manners and situational properties. Cognitive resource theory integrates cognitive resources like personal acumen, practical knowledge and skill, job capability, into original model. Assumptions: 1) Plans and strategies are communicated through directive behaviour by mangers. 2) Experienced and smarter leaders have more priority on decision making rather than less experienced and less smart leader. The main limitation of this theory that it is not well thought-out the ability of leader. The Hersey Blanchard Theory: This situational theory developed by Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard and it focuses on activity and operational environment of the organisation. Their main approach was that followers will always get favour from the leader about their willingness to do the job. In this approach leaders have to understand about the followers properly and have to identify their stage of development and according to that apply the leadership style. With taking help from Ohio State studies and develop four leadership styles that is available for managers- (Leadership in Organizations: There Is a Difference between Leaders and Managers by David I. Bertocci;University Press of America, 2009 ,pages.39,40) Directing or telling Coaching or selling Participating or supporting Delegating Directing or telling: Job responsibilities is defined by the leader and inform to followers about when to do that and where to do it and how can it be done. Coaching: Its a two way communication here leader gives supportive direction to followers and sometimes ask for ideas or suggestion from followers as well. Supporting or participating: The leader and follower share in decision accordingly to achieve a maximum values like what will be the best to compete with high worth job Delegating: Followers get little support from the leaders. Implications of this theory: one problem is that it does not matter how hard leaders try but they are against to change from one style to another. Behavioural Theories of Leadership: In this theory mainly focus on behaviour of leaders in the direction of the followers and this became a leading mode of leadership approaching within the organisation. Diverse patterns of manners were grouped together and categorized as styles. These activities of management through training became very famous. Basically these styles are- Task concern-Here leaders give important on objectives accomplishment through high level productivity, and ways to manage people and activities for achieving those objectives. People concern-Here leaders focus on their followers as people what their needs, interests, what their problems, how it can be development and so on. They are not simply units of production or means to an end. Directive leadership. This style is considered by leaders make decisions for others and desiring all the followers or subordinates will pursue that directions. Participative leadership. Here leaders take part in decision-making by sharing among others.(Wright 1996: 36-7) http://www.infed.org/leadership/traditional_leadership.htm, 6.00pm, 27th Aug 10  Wright, P. (1996) Managerial Leadership, London: Routledge.page-36-37 Charismatic Leadership: This theory is defined by Max Weber and mainly focuses on leaders charismatic characteristics. Through these characteristics leaders influence the followers and they can change anything. It is not possible to access these qualities by ordinary people generally they are extraordinary. They are like magic leaders they got special power to handle complex situations. Transactional Theories: (Introduction to educational leadership organizational behavior: theory into practice,Patti L. Chance, Chance, 2002,page.94) Ok -Leadership in Organizations: There Is a Difference Between Leaders and Managers, David I. Bertocci, University Press of America, 2009, page-48,49 This approach of leadership was most popular at that time and this is defined by Gibson, Ivancevich and Donnelly. It has some similar features with situational theories. Its a kind of leadership where leaders find out what the need of followers to achieve organisational performance as a means of rewards. In this theory has several assumptions like it motivates people through reward and get punishment for the cause of mistakes, followers know what they have to do according to direction for the purpose of getting rewards. Sometimes they use management by exception techniques. The transactional leader sometimes use Path-Goal theory as a framework but leader take all the responsibilities for setting goals, mission for gaining effectiveness. Transformational Theories: Followers are motivated and inspired by the transformation leaders and to achieve results more than desired. This is the most recent theories of leadership. This leadership ability based on different personality factors like charisma, person attention and rational recreation (page-49). Introduction to educational leadership organizational behavior: theory into practice-  By Patti L. Chance, Edward W. Chance, 2002, page-90, 95 There are several effects of transformational leadership defined by Bernard Bass and Bruce Avolio (1994) .These are as follows:- Motivating others to involve them in work from new perception Consciousness about what the mission of the organisation Developing ability of others to achieve performance at exceeds level Involved in determining the benefits of the organisations by motivating the beyond their attention as they could have. Theory X and Theory Y of Leadership: In 1960, Douglus and McGregor described this leadership theory that the activities of leaders are based on their thinking and considerations about the individuals at work. He also described the behaviour of leaders in two contrasting sets of bliefs.These are theory X and Theory Y. The assumptions of Theory X: Average individual do not like work and avoid if they can Individual need to keep pushing for achieving desired objectives by directing, controlling and threatening through giving punishment This approach can take actions The assumptions of Theory Y: People will work in their own responsibilities and control according to how they are committed. In common people have some qualities like creativeness and imaginativeness The average individuals are not only accepted but look for objectives. Leadership models currently using in different organisations: Now a day, most of the organisations are focusing on leaders behaviours, skills and attitudes that they must have and it is possible to develop those qualities. There are many leadership theories that have gained recognition in different organisational perspective. These are as follows- Situational leadership Transformational leadership Behavioural leadership (The leadership pocketbook, Fiona Elsa Dent 2003, page.09) Qualities of people in leadership positions: There are three levels of leadership positions in an organisation. These are strategic level, operational level and team level. A good leader should possess some good qualities to handle this position effectively and tactfully. These are as follows:- Good character Good personality Devotion Self confidence- this will help them to identify subordinates talent basically that will help the business to go up Good communication capability- it is very important for any business to run effectively without this it is impossible Good learner   it will help them to develop Risk taking ability Problem solving capability Relationships-this qualities need to maintain positive relationship in all areas Creative minded-this qualities help them to bring any change when there is esteem needs in order to sustain in the business for achieving high level of success Positive attitudes Servant leadership-decision making ability through considering the opinion attractiveness with business vision by stimulating the followers Bravery Innovative Good motivation power Leadership approaches for 21st century: http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-65357214/behavioral-approach-leadership-implications.html,7:53pm,26th Aug 10 http://www.strategy-business.com/article/19405?gko=3b347,9.00pm,26th,july2010 Main points considering different leading organisations in US for the 21st century: Internationalization and Change in information Technology though change in organisational diversity. Todays most dominant leadership model is situational, transformational leadership model but these theories ignored behavioural approach. Most of the organisations now focusing on main diversity initiatives and it can tackle through behavioural approach of leadership. These diversity initiatives can only be implemented through behavioural approach in todays or tomorrows in the organisations. The main leadership challenges for 21st centurys are forces in market, issues of people and competencies of leadership. Forces in market: The organizational change at a macroeconomic level is mainly depends on market forces and as a result these forces will require further keep in eye from organizations and leaders. For these purposes, so these market forces create an impact on behaviours and desires of those in the market either in terms of demanding or supplying a good or service. These forces consist of increase in globalization as well as the formation of progressively more huge multinational organizations through mergers and takeovers. In compared to larger organizations, most industries grow economies of scale by distributing overhead expenses through production of more units. Through globalization organisations is now offering products and services in different countries and cultures, the market size is increasing and they are serving lot. The overall cost of reaching these global is reduced on the cause of technological advancement. Issues of people: People issues involve interaction with the staff of an organization. With the beginning of the 21st century, these people are involving in conventional full-time. People are now more interested on part-time jobs. Every year more and more people will be self-employed, temporary or part-time. In United States dependent work force the total number of full time worker is reducing day by In future, staff will have different hope and demands on their organizations. Mainly, the organisation will have to focus more on the employee-employer relationship than it did in the 20th century. With their increased complexity and globalization, organizations are demanding skills and abilities from their leaders that are only beginning to be understood, never mind mastered. One of the most important of these will be the ability to balance employee wants and customer requirements globally and effectively in upcoming years. Talent human capital will be the prime sources of success. Competencies of leadership: In 21st century world is going to be more competitive, more complex situations. Leaders must have to focus on vision and goals of the organisation. They will have to tackle situations on day-to-day basis, have to identify stakeholders for the purpose of developing people, have to devote in service. Another explanation of competencies will consist of: development and communication ability for maintaining it in a dynamic market and stimulating others to buy into it; helps in decision making by guiding employees at all levels; committing to a culture while aligning individual and corporate goals, gaining knowledge about development. Another new leadership approach for 21st century is Cross Enterprise Leadership. Cross Enterprise Leadership: Cross-Enterprise Leadership that can generate, capture and distribute worth not only in company but all over the network of companies. Secondly, this enterprise-leadership also meets the challenges of complex and dynamic enterprises. Thirdly, it is not possible to manage enterprise by one leader, so consequently it needs to be distributed. Finally, this approach requires changes to leadership and that must be possessed by conventional business leader. http://www.iveybusinessjournal.com/view_article.asp?intArticle_ID=629(10.00pm,26th aug10 ) The current all the theories mainly focus on physical, mental interactions of human in the organisations but spirituals contains. Spiritual leadership: This leadership supplies hope and belief in the organizations vision that will generally help followers to look forward to future. In other ways it can be described through the attitudes and behaviour of leaders that generates sense membership.      Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   In operational field, spiritual leadership deals with the values, attitudes, and behaviours of leaders that are indispensable to inherently motivate ones self and others. http://www.iispiritualleadership.com/spiritual/theory.php,8.0 pm,27th aug10 Comparison Of Leadership Theories Comparison Of Leadership Theories Leadership is the personnel ability which unites power and influence. It means that leadership not only needs power that position given but also needs inner influence that can attract the followers, change their behaviour, inspirit performance and final lead to achieve organizational goals. In the past half century, leadership theory has gone through sots of changes with continue development and improvement of trait theory, behavioral theory, contingency theory and transformational theory(Naylor.J). These four theories have substantial different in definitions; However,there is a progressive relationship that means the performance has increased though developing leadership theory. This essay will compare four leadership theories and take examples to comprehend clearly. Trait theory The trait theory in the earlier time was tend to researched some common characteristics or quality of outstanding leaders. The personal trait of the leader is the key factor of decision effectiveness of leadership.In other word, the leadership efficiency depends on the leaders traits. it has made a standard of leaders traits. therefore, an enterprise s effort could go toward this standard when cultivate leaders.Afterward,the employees will get reasonable development and the enterprise would gain benefit as well.However,as the trait theory ignore the subordinates needs, did not specify the relative importance between all kinds of characteristics , lacking of the distinction between cause and effect,and ignoring the situation factors, causes failure in explaining the leadership behavior. Example of Trait theory As a manager of a enterprise,Steve Jobs leads apple team beginning with only1300$ of Working capital to a development of Market value with 762 million dollars by the year of 2011.And from a family workshop with two people developed to nearly 50000 employees in the global.The success of Jobs is closely linked with his personal traits.In 1997,when he Became a chief executive of apple company,he made a vital decision which turn the crisis situation that he decrease the types of products from 350types to only 10types. Focus on research and development of 10 types product elaborately ,the company profit increased with high quality of productions.The leadership trait of assertiveness and decisiveness are fully presented though this example,and his intelligence, controlling with crisis can not be ignored as well. 2. Behavioural theory Behavioral theory emphasize the behavior of treating subordinates, it focus on concerning of people and production as well as the angle of superiors control and subordinates participation. Based preference of concern, it concludes tree main types of leadership which are Autocratic,Democratic and Laissez-faine.(Naylor.J)Contrast with trait theory, behavioral theory marks the leadership transformation that from single study for leaders characters tend to a wider range of leadership research.However,compare with contingency theory,behavioral theory seems less concern about the needs of situation, the influence of culture and the expectations of subordinators which are its shortage of leadership. Example of Behavioural theory A typical example of Autocratic leadership is STRONG company which is currently the worlds largest sales enterprise of jelly, pudding ,seaweed and other recreational kind of food.it has strict production chain,and concern more about production than staffs.In the workshop, the staffs just need to follow the strict standard during their work, its target is to product high quality and High output of food. Contrast to Autocratic leadership, the Democratic leadership is more friendly, an example is McDonald.Today the McDonald not only is a food industry but also a service industry,leaders need to communicate with staffs to meet their demands then they would work with enthusiasm and satisfaction, thus,gain better profit to company,staffs get more reward as well. 3.Contingency theory As the insufficient study of Trait theory and Behavioral theory , they have a common defect that ignoring the situational factors leads to disrupt in theory and practicality.Therefore,Contingency theory scholars in the study of the leadership taken situational factors into consideration. It though the interaction of personal leaders traits, behavior and work environment to explain the phenomenon of leadership.Contingency theory has the following three researches which are typical :1)Fiedlers contingency theory 2ÃÆ' ¯Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¼Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ °Vroom and Yetton contingency theory,3)Pathgoal theory(Naylor.J). To a great extent, it closes the distance between leadership theory and the actual of leadership as well as meet the actual executives needs to leadership theory. While,there also are sots of situation need to take into the concern ,for example, the ability of leaders influence the subordinates and the role leaders play expected by subordinates. Example of contingency theory Leaders need to analysis situation elements of the different conditions and adopt different leadership to motivate subordinates, then realize effective management. For example,In the military,leaders have higher power , strict sense of discipline and high morale.The effective leadership is layer upon layer decree to make subordinate clearly of mission objectives. However, in a cooperative type of organization,using the way of commanding tasks would not work.Another example is Foxconn which is a high and new technology enterprise .Based on large scale of enterprise and hundreds of thousands of workers,it dose not have good interpersonal relations between subordinates and it have to put clearly task structure to different levels in the company, also need strong position power to lead such large number of workers. Due to these factors ,Foxconn have a military method and the task-orientated leader would be suitable to lead its workers. 4.Transformational leadership Transformational leadership theory links the role of leader and subordinates, it tries to improve both power and the moral level among leader and subordinates as well. Leaders who own transformational leadership though their behavior model like charisma, inspiration, intellectual stimulation and concern about subordinates to optimize members interaction of organization, then achieve their target and expectations. Therefore, transformational theory emphasize that leaders concern about individual demand levels and inspire work motivation of members to make maximum benefit. Since this theory attaches great importance to the human factor of management,however, human is a complex research object that means there are a lot of things worth our further to study. Example of Transformational leadership Transforming the role of leader and subordinates is a characteristic of transformational leadership that means leaders fully know their subordinates demands also though inspiration to obtain high expectation. McDonalds is one of the biggest and the most famous fast food groups à £Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¡its success is closely linked with perfect human resource management, before managers choosing inspiring method, leadership style, they set up the humanist management idea and fully understand the difference between the employees demands to give full play to the initiative ,enthusiasm and creativity.Afterwards,subordinates would feel individual consideration and satisfaction with their works.eventually,McDonald would gain the benefit though its leadership. Conclusion Based on above all analysis and comparison of leadership theory, it is clearly that leadership theory has been boosted a lot from the tait theory to the latest transformational theory with the development in the past half centaury. From Trait theory which just focus on researching leaders characteristics, turn to behavioral theory which tend to concern the influence of leaders behavior to their subordinates,while the contingency theory take the factor of different situations into leadership research that fill the gap of trait theory and behavioral theory,However, transformational theory is more comprehensive and flexible than other three theories.However, refer to changeful situations, leaders should choose appropriate theory to manage their subordinates. Moreover, the research of leadership is not stop, to be more systematic is the research direction in the future.